An Analysis Of Dantes Inferno English Literature Essay

An Analysis Of Dantes Inferno English Literature Essay Dantes Inferno represents a microcosm of society; that is, laymen, clergy, lovers, wagers of war, politicians, and scholars are all collected into one place and punished for their worst and most human attributes. Hell, despite its otherworldly appearance and brutal, ugly nature, is somewhat humanized by the fact that those who are punished come from every country (Dante 3.123) and every walk of life, regardless of age, race, sex, or creed. While Dante Alighieri did not invent the idea of Hell as a place of punishment for the wayward and sinful souls in the afterlife, he did create the most powerful and enduring (Raffa 1) imagining of a concept which has received significant attention in biblical, classical, and medieval works. Dantes Divine Comedy was written sometime between 1308 and 1321 and is considered the supreme work of Italian literature (Norwich 27). It is an epic poem divided into three separate sections: Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven, respec tively. The personal element of the journey through Hell in Dantes Inferno literally explores the descent of one man into sin; through the use of poetic justice, both contemporary and historical figures, and mythological figures, Dante crafts an immediate and enthralling work dealing with the nature of sin and its place in society. The concept of poetic justice is famously explored in Inferno, where it is put to dramatic effect devising appropriate torments for each particular sin (Raffa 3). From Limbo to Treachery, Dante catalogues and documents the punishment of sinners both infamous and beloved, famous and unknown. In every case, the punishment fits the crime in a twisted and malignant fashion after all, the poem does discuss the realm of Satan, the Christian embodiment of evil. The nine circles of Hell described in Inferno are as follows: Limbo, Lust, Gluttony, Avarice and Prodigality, Wrath and Sullenness, Heresy, Violence, Fraud, and Treachery. These nine circles are based off of the idea of the Seven Deadly Sins, with some additions such as Limbo created by Dante. The poem begins with Dante lost in a dark wood, assailed by three beasts he cannot evade, and unable to move straight along (Dante 1.18) the road to salvation, represented by a mountain. A lion, a leopard, and a she-wolf symbolizing pride, envy, and avarice, respectively block Dantes path to the top of the mountain, forcing him to descend into the depths of Hell with Virgil. The entire journey documented in the Divine Comedy is an allegory for mans fall into sin before achieving redemption (represented by Purgatorio) and eventually salvation (represented by Paradiso). Before Dante even enters the gates of Hell, he is introduced to his guide for the first two realms of the afterlife, Inferno and Paradiso. For this role, Dante chose Virgil (70-19 BCE), who lived under the rule of Julius Caesar and later Augustus during Romes transition from a republic into an empire, and is most famous for the Aeneid. Two episodes in Virgils work were of particular interest to Dante. Book IV tells the tale of Aeneas and Dido, the queen of Carthage, who kills herself when Aeneas abandons her to continue his journey and [found] a new civilization in Italy (Raffa 8). Book VI recounts Aeneas journey into Hades to meet the shade of his father and learn of future events in his journey. Many elements in the Aeneid are present in heavily modified form in Dantes Inferno. Many of Dantes mythological elements are based on Book VI of Virgils Aeneid, which recounts Aeneas visit to the underworld. Virgil imbued his version of the underworld with a fluid, dreamlike atmosphere (5), while Dante instead strives for greater realism, providing sharply drawn and tangible figures. After passing through the gateway to hell, marked ominously with the words ABANDON EVERY HOPE, WHO ENTER HERE (Dante 3.9), Dante and Virgil witness a realm of miserable people who lived without disgrace and without praise (3.17-35) on the periphery of the Inferno. In this realm, the two poets encounter the souls of those who lived such undistinguished and cowardly lives that they have been cast out by Heaven and refused entry by Hell. These souls are forced to race after a banner which never comes to a stop, and are stung repeatedly by flies and wasps, their blood and tears nourishing the sickening worms (3.69) at their feet. The punishment for these cowardly souls is clear; just as in life they refused to be decisive and act, they now are barred from both eternal paradise and eternal damnation, and chase down a waving banner which they will never be able to reach. Next, Dante and Virgil meet Charon, Hells boatman. In the Aeneid, Charon is the pilot of the vessel that transports shades of the dead across the waters into the underworld. In both works, he is an irritable old man with hair white with years (3.83) who objects to taking a living man (Aeneas, Dante) into the realm of the dead. In each case, the protagonists guide (the Sybil, Virgil) provides Charon the proper credentials, and their journey continues. In Limbo, the guiltless damned, noble non-Christian souls, and those who lived before the time of Christianity are punished. The idea of a place for souls who did not sin; and yet lacked baptism (4.34-35) existed in Christian theology prior to Dante, but his vision is more generous than most. Dante includes unbaptized babies, as well as notable non-Christian adults in his version of Limbo, which bears a resemblance to the Asphodel Meadows, a section of the Greek underworld where indifferent and ordinary souls were sent to live after death. Dante suggests that those in Limbo are being punished for their ignorance of God by being forced to spend the afterlife in a deficient form of Heaven; while certainly not as hellish as the other circles, Limbo is by no means a paradise. Dante encounters the classical poets Homer (eighth or ninth century BCE), Horace (65-8 BCE), Ovid (43 BCE -17 CE), and Lucan (39-65 CE), who welcome back their comrade Virgil and honour Dante and one of their own (Dante 4.79-102). Philosophers Socrates and Aristotle also make appearances in Limbo as the shades of men renowned for their outstanding intellectual achievements. Socrates (born ca. 470 BCE in Athens) was a legendary teacher known for the rigorous method of questioning that characterizes the dialogues of Plato (ca. 428-ca. 347 BCE), who also appears. In addition, one notable non-Christian soul finds himself in Limbo, separated from the rest: Saladin, the distinguished military leader and Egyptian sultan who fought against the crusading armies of Europe yet was admired even by his enemies for his chivalry and magnanimity. Dantes implication is that all virtuous non-Christians find themselves in Limbo. The Lustful are punished in the second circle by being blown about by a hellish hurricane, which never rests wheeling and pounding (5.31-33). Lust, for many of the inhabitants of this circle, led to the sin of adultery and in the cases of Dido, Cleopatra, Helen of Troy, and others a violent death. The violent winds are symbolic of lust, and represent the power it holds in affairs of blind passion and physical love. Lust contains the shades of many famous lovers: Semiramis, Dido, Paris, Achilles, and Tristan, among others. Semiramis was a powerful Assyrian queen alleged to ave been so perverse that she even made incest a legal practice (Raffa 27); Dido, queen of Carthage and widow of Sychaeus, committed suicide after her lover Aeneas abandoned her (Virgil IV); Paris later died during the Trojan war; Achilles was the most formidable (Raffa 27) Greek hero in the war against the Trojans, who was killed by Paris (according to medieval accounts); finally, Tristan was the nephew of king Mark of Cornwall who fell in love in Iseult (Marks fiancee) and was killed by Marks poisoned arrow. Minos, the one who judges and assigns (Dante 5.6) the souls during their descent into Hell, is an amalgam of figures from classical sources, completed with several personal touches from Dante. He is a combination of two figures of the same name, one the grandfather of the other, both rulers of Crete. The elder Minos was admired for his wisdom and the laws of his kingdom. The second Minos imposed a harsh penalty on the Athenians (who had killed his son Androgeos), demanding an annual tribute of fourteen youths (seven boys and seven girls), who were sacrificed to the Minotaur, which appears later in Inferno. Minos long tail which he wraps around himself, that marks the sinners level (Dante 5.11-12) is Dantes invention. Gluttony is punished in the third circle. The souls of the damned lie in a vile, grimy slush brought about by cold, unending, heavy, and accursed rain (6.7-8). These former gluttons lie sightless and heedless of their neighbours, symbolizing their cold, selfish, and empty pursuit of hedonism and empty sensuality. The slush, representative of overindulgence and sensuality, serves to cut one off from both the outside world and from Gods deliverance. Gluttonous individuals of note include a Florentine contemporary of Dantes, identified as Ciacco ( pig in Italian). Ciacco speaks to Dante regarding the political conflict in the city of Florence between two rival parties, the White and Black Guelphs, and predicts the defeat of the White Guelphs, Dantes party. This event did indeed occur, and would lead to Dantes own exile in 1302. As the poem is set in the year 1300, before Dantes exile, he uses the events of his own life to illustrate the unique ability of shades in Inferno to predict the future, a theme which is returned to later in the poem. Cerberus, guardian of Gluttony, is similar to the beast of Greek mythology. In the Aeneid, Virgil describes Cerberus the three-headed dog which guards the entrance to the classical underworld as loud, huge, and terrifying. Dantes Cerberus displays similar canine qualities: his three throats produce a deafening bark, and he eagerly devours the fistful of dirt Virgil throws into his mouths like a dog intent on its meal. Cerberus bloodred (6.16) eyes, greasy, black (6.16) beard, and large gut link him to the gluttonous spirits whom he tears, flays, and rends (6.18) with his clawed hands. The Avaricious and the Prodigal are punished together in the fourth circle. Avarice, or greed, is one of the inequities that most incurs Dantes scorn and wrath (Raffa 37). Prodigality is defined as the opposite of Avarice; that is, the trait of excessive spending. Both groups are forced to eternally joust with one another, using cumbersome stone weights as weapons. They call out to each other: Why do you hoard? Why do you squander? (Dante 7.30). Here Dante describes the punishment of both extremes, criticizing excessive desire for and against the possession of material goods using the classical principle of moderation. In the fifth circle, the Wrathful and the Sullen are punished. The wrathful fight each other eternally on the surface of the river Styx, which runs darker than deep purple (7.103), while the sullen lie gurgling beneath the water. Dante describes how the Wrathful combat one another: [They] struck each other not with hands alone, but with their heads and chests and with their feet, and tore each other piecemeal with their teeth (7.112-114). The wrathful are damned to eternally struggle and fight without direction or purpose, while the sullen have withdrawn into a black sulkiness from which they can find joy in neither God nor life. In the fifth circle, Filippo Argenti, a prominent Florentine and a Black Guelph, calls to Dante. A hotheaded character (Raffa 40), little is known regarding Filippo except what transpires in Inferno. He quarrels with Dante, lays his hands upon the boat the poets travel on, and is eventually torn apart by his wrathful cohorts. The two men were political opponents, but Dantes behaviour towards Filippo indicates a more personal grievance. Perhaps he had humiliated Dante in life, or had taken some part of Dantes property after his exile from the city. Phlegyas is the solitary boatman (Dante 8.17) who transports Dante and Virgil in his boat across the Styx, the circle of the wrathful and sullen. He was known in Greek mythology for his impetuous behaviour; in a fit of rage, Phlegyas set fire to the temple of Apollo because the god had raped his daughter Apollo promptly slew him in response. Phlegyas appears in Virgils underworld as an admonition against showing contempt for the gods (Virgil 6.618-620), a role which he reprises in Inferno. Between the fifth and sixth circles lie the walls of Dis, the fortressed city of Lower Hell (Raffa 39). The fallen angels who guard the gates of Dis refuse entry to the two poets, requiring the arrival of a messenger from Heaven to open the gate for them. Dante designates all of Lower Hell circles six through nine, where the most serious of sins are punished as the walled city of Dis, with its grave citizens, its great battalions (Dante 8.69). The first five circles, which exist outside of Dis, are collectively known as Upper Hell, as they are where the lesser sins are punished. With the appearance of the three infernal (9.38) Furies, who threaten to call on Medusa, Virgils credibility and Dantes survival appear to be at risk. Furies were often invoked in Virgils classical world to exact revenge on behalf of offended mortal and gods. Medusas hair was turned into snakes by an angry Minerva after Medusa made love with Neptune in the goddesss temple, and became too horrifying to look at without being turned to stone. Dante describes Medusa as the Queen of never-ending lamentation (9.44). The Furies names evil thought (Allecto), evil words (Tisiphone), and evil deeds (Magaera) (9.45-48) describe the three manifestations of sin, which can turn people to stone by making them obstinate cultivators of earthly things (Raffa 41). Heretics are punished inside the walls of Dis, in a spreading plain of lamentation and atrocious pain (Dante 9.110-111) resembling a cemetery. The sixth circle contains souls trapped and enclosed in fiery tombs for failing to believe in God and the afterlife. Since they did not believe in Hell, the Heretics are punished by being sealed away from it in the most unpleasant possible way inside a flaming sepulchre. Among the tombstones of the sixth circle, Dante encounters more Italian contemporaries. A pair of Epicurian Florentines are disocvered sharing a tomb: Farinata degli Uberti, a Ghibelline; and Cavalcante de Cavalcanti, a fellow Guelph and the father of Guido Cavalcanti, Dantes fellow poet and closest friend. Farinata is an imposing figure, rising out of his inflamed sepulchre from the waist up and seeming to have great contempt for Hell (10.31-36). As the leader of the Ghibellines, Farinata was an enemy to the Guelphs, the party of Dantes ancestors. Farinata declares that his colleagues would have annihilated Florence (10.92), had he not interceded forcefully, an act which has earned him Dantes respect. Cavalcante was an enemy to the Ghibellines, like Dante, and married his son Guido to Farinatas daughter in order to foster peace between the two parties. Dantes best friend, Guido Cavalcanti, was a poet who held the philosophical belief that love is a dark force which leads only to mis ery and death. Therefore, Cavalcantes appearance in Hell might be more a matter of guilt by association to his sons worldview than any kind of reflection on himself. The Minotaur is the guardian and mythological symbol for the seventh circle, Violence. At the sight of Dante and Virgil, the minotaur reacts like one whom fury devastates within (12.15), and his frenzied bucking allows the travellers to proceed unharmed. The Minotaur is a physical manifestation of violence in Inferno: almost every part of the Minotaurs story, from its creation to its demise, contains some form of violence (Raffa 55). The sinners in the seventh circle are divided into three groups: the violent against people and property, the violent against themselves, and the violent against God and nature (Dante 11.28-33). The first group comprised of assassins and murderers, among others are immersed in Phlegethon, a bloodred, boiling (12.101) river of blood and fire, up to a level commensurate with their sins (12.73-75). Because they committed such acts of bloodshed and destruction in their lives, they are punished by being immersed in a river of that which they have spilt. The second group the suicides are transformed into knotted, gnarled (13.5) thorny bushes and trees, which are fed upon by Harpies. These souls have given away their physical bodies through suicide, and are forced to maintain treelike forms. These suffering trees cannot speak until Dante accidentally injures one and causes it to bleed. Dante uses the soul-trees as a metaphor for the state of mind which leads to self-harm and suicide. Finall y, the third group blasphemers and sodomites reside in a desert of sand, fire and brimstone falling from the sky. The blasphemers lie down upon the sand, the usurers recline, and the sodomites wander seemingly aimlessly in huddling groups, all while being burned by distended flakes of fire (14.28-29). This symbolizes how those who act violently against God and that which God has provided are perpetually unable to find peace and comfort in their lives. Among those immersed in Phlegethon is Alexander the Great, submerged up to his eyebrows in blood. He suffers for his reputation as a cruel, bloodthirsty man who inflicted great harm upon the world and its peoples. In the forest of suicides, Dante hears the tale of Pier delle Vigne, who killed himself after falling out of favour with Emperor Frederick II (Dante 13.64-69). Dante encounters his mentor, Brunetto Latini, among the sodomites. Surprised and touched by this encounter, Dante shows Brunetto great respect and admiration, thus refuting suggestions that the poet Dante placed only his enemies in Hell (15.43-45). The Centaurs are men from the waist up with the lower bodies of horses (Raffa 55) who guard the river Phlegethon. Thousands of centaurs patrol the bank of the river, using bows and arrows to keep damned souls submerged. In classical mythology, Centaurs are best known for their uncouth, violent behaviour. Chiron, leader of the Centaurs, enjoyed a favourable reputation as the sage tutor of both Hercules and Achilles. Pholus and Nessus the Centaurs assigned to escort Dante and Virgil have fully earned their negative reputations, however: Pholus who Virgil describes as full of rage (Dante 12.72) had been killed when a fight broke out during a wedding after he and his fellow centaurs attempted to carry off the bride and several other girls, and Nessus was killed by Hercules with a poison arrow for attempting to rape the heros wife, Deinira, after Hercules entrusted him with carrying her across a river (12.67-69). The penultimate circle as well as the most detailed is Fraud, which Dante describes as a place in Hell made all of stone the colour of crude iron (18.1-2). This circle is divided up into ten smaller pockets: panderers and seducers, flatterers, simonists, sorcerers, barrators, hypocrites, thieves, fraudulent advisers and evil councillors, sowers of discord, and falsifiers. Panderers (pimps) and seducers march eternally in opposite directions, lashed cruelly (18.36) by demons. Just as they used passion and seduction to bend others to their will, they are now themselves driven by hellish demons. Flatterers exploited other people using language, therefore, they are plunged in excrement (18.113), representing the false words they produced. Simonists payed for positions of power within the Catholic Church, and are placed upside-down into holes in the floor, with both soles [of their feet] on fire (9.25). The holes into which their heads are planted resemble baptismal fonts, used in several religious rituals a constant reminder of the corrupt nature of their former positions in the church. Sorcerers, astrologers, and false prophets have had their heads twisted toward their haunches (20.13) so that they can not see what is ahead of them. This symbolizes the twisted nature of magic in general specifically, it refers to the use of forbidden means to see into the future. Dante felt particularly unforgiving towards politicians after his exile from Florence, thus, corrupt politicians (barrators) are immersed in a stew of sticky pitch (21.8). Their punishment represents the sticky fingers, corrupt deals, and dark secrets inherent in positions of political power. The hypocrites listlessly walk with lagging steps, in circles, with features tired and defeated (23.59-60), wearing leaden cloaks, representing the falsity behind the appearance of their actions. This falsity literally weighs these souls down and renders any sort of progress impossible. The thieves are pursued and at tacked by lizards and snakes, their bites causing them to undergo various transformations (24-25). Just as they stole in life, their very human identity becomes subject to theft in Hell. Fraudulent advisers and evil councillors are encased within individual pyres. These individuals did not give false advice out of ignorance; rather, Dante refers to rhetoric [used] by talented people for insidious ends (Raffa 99). In life, they caused those whom they advised to do ill without dirtying their own hands now they are punished alone in their fires. The sowers of discord are hacked apart, their bodies dividing as in life they caused division among others. Their wounds are quickly healed, only to have themselves hacked apart again (Dante 28.139-142). Dante considers falsifiers (alchemists, counterfeiters, perjurers, and impersonators) a disease upon society, and their corrupting influence is reflected in their diseased bodies and minds (Raffa 99) in the tenth pouch. In the eighth circle, Dante meets a number of notably fraudulent individuals. Venedico Caccianemico, who sold his own sister to the Marchese dEste, is recognized among the pimps in the first pouch, despite his attempts to avoid detection (Dante 18.40-60). In the fifth ditch, the thief Vanni Fucci is burnt to ashes before being reincarnated; Agnel blends together with a reptilian Cianfa; and Buoso exchanges forms with Francesco. Vanni Fucci was a black Guelph from Pistoia, a town not far from rival Florence; Dante says he knew Vanni as a man of blood and anger (Dante 24.129). Agnel is thought to be Agnello Dei Brunelleschi, a man who joined the white Guelphs Dante s party but then switched to the black faction when they came to power. Both he and Cianfa are renowned for their thievery. Buoso stole while serving in public office, then arranged for Francesco de Cavalcanti to take over and steal on his behalf. In the eighth pit, Ulysses and Diomedes are condemned for the deception of the Trojan Horse, luring Achilles into the war effort, and stealing a statue of Athena from Troy (26.58-63). Dante encounters the schismatic prophet Muhammad; the poet views Islam as an off-shoot from Christianity, and similarly condemns Ali, Muhammads son-in-law, for the schism between Sunni and Shiite Muslims (28.22-33). The Malebranche ( Evil claws in Italian) are the devils of the fifth pocket of circle eight who bring to Hell the shades of corrupt political officials and employees. They are agile, smart, and fierce (Raffa 77), they are armed with long hooks, which they use to keep the shades under the surface of the black pitch (Dante 21.55-57). It is likely that the names Dante coined for individual demons ( Bad Dog, Sneering Dragon, Curly Beard, etc.) are based on actual family names of civic leaders in Florence and the surrounding towns. The Giants physically connect circles eight and nine: standing on the floor of circle nine, they tower over the inner ledge of circle eight with the upper halve of their immense bodies. They are archetypal examples of defiant rebels: Nimrod, who attempted to build the Tower of Babel before it was knocked down by God and his people were scattered; Ephialtes, who fought against Jove and the other Olympian gods; and Antaeus, whose relationship with the titans who stormed Mt. Olympus damned him, despite the fact that he was born after his brothers had waged war against the gods. Nimrod has been punished by being forced to speak an incomprehensible language; that is, his language is as strange to others as theirs is to him. Ephialtes, like the rest of the titans who challenged the gods, is immobilized with heavy chains. Antaeus is not given any exceptional punishment, for he is only guilty by association. It is Antaeus who assists Virgil and Dante by lowering them down to the ninth circle , after being enticed by Virgil with the prospect of eternal fame upon Dantes return to the world (31.115-129). The final circle is Treachery, a frozen lake at the centre of Hell, which is divided into four Rounds: Ca?na, Antenora, Ptolomaea, and Judecca. In Ca?na, traitors to their kindred are immersed in ice up to their faces. In Antenora, traitors to political entities are located similarly in the ice. In Ptolomaea, traitors to their guests are punished, lying on their backs in the ice, with only their faces uncovered. In Judecca, the traitors to their lords and benefactors are completely encapsulated in ice, distorted in pain. In the first round of Treachery, Dante encounters Mordred, who attacked his uncle King Arthur and was pierced mortally by Arthurs lance (Dante 32.61-62). In the second round, Count Ugolino pauses from his ceaseless assault upon the head of his rival, Archbishop Ruggieri, to tell Dante how Ruggieri imprisoned and killed him with his children. This story, the longest single episode related by a damned soul in Inferno, serves as Dantes final dramatic representation of mankinds capacity for evil and cruelty. Fra Alberigo, who had his brother killed at a banquet, explains a key conceit of Dantes Inferno: sometimes, a soul falls into Hell before they have actually died. Their earthly bodies are possessed by demons, so what appears to be a walking, living man is actually beyond the point of repentance (33.134-147). Finally, Lucifer the emperor of the despondent kingdom (34.28) lies at the centre of the Inferno. As ugly as he once was beautiful (34.34-36), Lucifer is a wretched contrast with his limited autonomy and mobility. Lucifers three faces (black, yellow, and red) parody the doctrine of the Holy Trinity: three persons (Father, Son, Holy Spirit) in one divine nature the Divine Power, Highest Wisdom, and Primal Love which also created the gates of Hell, and, by extension, the entire realm of eternal damnation. His flapping wings generate the wind that keeps lake at the centre of Hell frozen, while his three mouths chew on the shade-bodies of the three archtraitors Judas, Brutus, and Cassius the gore mixing with tears gushing out of his three sets of eyes (34.53-57). Dantes Inferno heralded a revolution in Christian theology through its innovative use of poetic justice, historical and contemporary figures, and classical mythology. By combining these disparate elements into a single, cohesive poem, Dante effectively changed the way the Western world imagined the afterlife and Hell in particular. By focusing on the details of the scenes and the identities of those whom the fictional Dante converses with, Inferno illustrates a horrifyingly real and immediate vision of Hell, one which has persisted at least in some part to this day. By focusing on the personal journey of one man through the afterlife, the focus of the narrative is shifted onto the reader, who can easily identify with Dante as the first-person narrator. While the circumstances surrounding the creation of the Divine Comedy Dantes exile from Florence, his fall from political grace, and his eventual death soon after the completion of his magnum opus are rather tragic, they all contribute to Dantes work in a way which colours the text and gives it a personality and passion which is still felt to this day. For seven hundred years, Inferno has elicited strong responses from its readers from fascination to revulsion and everything in between (Raffa 5). Regardless as to the readership, the response to Inferno has been, and will continue to be, anything but apathetic.

Buddhism from a Philosophical Standpoint

When one attempts to put religion under the inquiry of philosophy, there is an important thing that must be clarified. One must be aware that philosophy is both a science of systematic thinking and a way of life. As a science, philosophy explores the ultimate causes and purposes of all things that exist. It entails adherence to rigorous logic and impassioned critique of nearly all things that may be put into question. Which is why, it is a strict rational science (if not the most rigorous one).However, one needs to equally remember that philosophy can also pertain to a principle about life, or a life-influencing belief system. To be sure, this second notion of philosophy enjoys more usage than the previous one nowadays. For instance, many self-help books promising to teach people new philosophies to help them emerge successful in life end up in bookstores as top-sellers and/or top-grosser. One can call both of them – the philosophic inquiry into things and the less rigorous ad herence to some principles about life – as philosophies in their own respects.Studying religion from a philosophical standpoint entails an inquiry figuring in two levels as well. Religion must be seen both as a subject that can be assessed, and a way of life that has to be lived. As an object of philosophic inquiry, religion must be evaluated according to the tenets it holds or the doctrines it teaches. As a way of life, religion must be seen in the context of ritual or ethical practices stemming from a belief system. Thus, in studying religion, one is able to gather philosophical analyses from certain practices and beliefs.In a way, it is the result of combining the two basic understandings of philosophy into a single framework. Rationale and Methodology The aim of this paper is to present Buddhism from the standpoint of philosophy. This means that some of the basic questions that philosophy asks shall be answered in the light of what Buddhism teaches. What could those basic questions be? First, there is a question about ontology. Under this specific inquiry, one looks at how Buddhism perceives all things that exist.Next, there is cosmology; an inquiry which enables one to ask: how does Buddhism understand the world? Other concerns include anthropology (read: how do they understand man? ) and ethics (read: how do they assess what could be morally acceptable or not). But ultimately, since Buddhism is acknowledged as one of the major religions of the world right now, a philosophic inquiry should include exploring their basic notions about God; and thus, theology. After all, religion is essentially about a â€Å"belief in Spiritual Beings† (McCutcheon, 2007, p.22) translated most frequently into a belief in a kind of God. Buddhism: History and Core Doctrines Buddhism is a religious movement which started approximately 500 years before Christ (Griffiths, 1997, p. 15). It first spread across most of the Indian peninsula, only to be dispersed outside the region later on. At present, its influence is embraced not just by Indians but also by those coming from countries which comprise the South and South East Asia region, a few areas in Japan and some provinces of China.It needs to be mentioned that Buddhism is a religious phenomenon characterized by diversity in forms and practices. Buddhism, says one author, is a â€Å"very differentiated† religion (Griffiths, 1997, p. 5). One may not find the same strain of Buddhism found, say, in South East Asia, and another one coming from, say, a southern province of India. Right now, there are a myriad of groups claiming to adhere to a unique practice of Buddhism on their own. In effect, it makes Buddhism a kind of religion that seems neither to teach nor require uniformity of doctrines from all its adherents.Buddhism is a religion that draws heavily from the inspiration lent by its recognized founder, Gautama Sakayamuni (later on to become Gautama Buddha) – a person who exempl ified for them a life of total freedom and perpetual meditation in order to arrive at an utterly blissful state called Nirvana. By and large, it is about an adherence to a lifestyle that seeks authentic enlightenment; and not about a longing for the Transcendent which most religions of the world are concerned with. For this reason, some thinkers are entertaining the idea that Buddhism is, after all, â€Å"not a religion but a way of life† (Humphreys, 1997, p.13). Buddhism, as many authors have noted, is a movement associated not so much with a set of doctrinal teachings as a â€Å"body of teachings with spiritual benefits† (Williams, 1989, p. 2). In fact, many Buddhism-inclined literatures encompass teachings not really about religious worship, but about way of living, ritual practices, devotional meditation (Mitchell, 2002, p. 1), among others. Owing much from the teachings which Gautama Buddha has left, Buddhism teaches that life is in a state of perpetual quest for enlightenment marked by a feeling of constant dissatisfaction (Williams, 1989, p.34). Buddha himself was a testament to this. After leaving home at an early age, Gautama ventured on a life-journey to seek for enlightenment; a precious state he could not seem to find in the world as he got to know it. As he tried to quell the gripping loneliness and instinctive drive to satisfy pleasures, Gautama sought answer and solace through meditation. His meditation led him to see that impermanence, dissatisfaction and a fluid sense of self constitute the basic truths of reality (Williams, 1989, pp.34-36). He further taught that a human person is really nothing, but only takes form as someone constituted by five different â€Å"aggregates† namely, â€Å"form (material constitution), sensation, perception, mental formations and consciousness† (Williams, 1989, p. 37). One should now that one of the chief elements that defines the uniqueness of Buddhism lies in how they consider all things to be illusory, since they subscribe to the idea that â€Å"things are not what they seem† (Griffiths, 1997, p. 20).Some of their other teachings about life include the following: value for the principle of moderation, belief in Karma and perpetual recurrence of everything that exists, belief in life’s four noble truths (life is suffering, the cause of suffering is cravings for pleasure, freedom from suffering is temperance from pleasures, and a way to stop suffering is by following the eight-fold path), and the practice of the noble eight-fold paths (right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right living, right conduct, right mindfulness and right concentration) in one’s life (Mitchell, 2002, pp. 45-47). A Philosophical AnalysisJudging from the ideas raised in the Introduction of this work, it is clear that one must consider Buddhism a type of philosophy – that is, as a way of life. Many authors have already proceeded to claim that this particular religious phenomenon is chiefly characterized by the numerous practical precepts which serve as guides towards an enlightened living. It is good to note that Buddhism, pretty much like philosophy, is concerned with the pursuit of enlightenment or truth. An enlightened self – immortalized perhaps in Western Philosophy by Plato’s Allegory of the Cave – is surely the goal why one enters into philosophical discourses.In so far as Buddhism offers its own distinct ways to attain enlightenment as well, it is therefore with good reasons that one should classify this religion as philosophical in many ways. Buddhism however does not stop at stipulating suggestions for right living alone. As a system of belief, it also offers perspectives about the whole of reality. Like philosophical discourses, Buddhism is a belief system that speaks of its perspective about the ultimate realities like human existence, cosmology, human knowledge, ontology and theology.Sur ely, there is a need to look into these briefly Buddhism’s take on reality encourages an attitude of detachment on account of a belief that â€Å"everything is impermanent† (Griffiths, 1997, p. 16), and therefore in a state of constant flux. Much of Buddhism’s view about reality rests on the belief that the world is full of ‘diversity’, and the more is able to ‘reveal’ or appreciate it, the closer is one to the truth about the ever passing universe (Williams, 1989, p. 3).This idea is interestingly shared by an ancient Western philosopher that went by the name Heraclitus, who taught that â€Å"fire†- an element in a perpetual state of movement – is the basic element that constitutes reality. Buddhism, one need to remember, is not so much concerned with the rigorous definition of reality. But in so far it embraces an attitude of non-attachment in relating to all things, Buddhism has to anchor this belief system on a formidab le reason – that one’s attachment over things is futile given the fact that all things pass away.In fact, most of what Buddhism teaches is drawn from this ontological belief; and this doctrine of impermanence must be seen as a recurrent theme in its whole system of perspective. As far as Epistemology is concerned, the doctrine of impermanence is also maintained. Buddhism teaches that nothing can be known with exact certitude because all things are ephemeral and thus, as mentioned a while ago, â€Å"they are not what they seem† (Griffiths, 1997, p. 19). Everything is subject to change and passes away.Thus, one may not arrive at a definitive knowledge about things at all. Which is why, Buddha maintained that â€Å"dissatisfaction† is a constant theme that defines the feelings of all who search for knowledge or truth (Mitchell, 2002, p. 33). No one is able to know what reality is; and its appearance is often misleading. One may notice that this epistemology is actually consistent with Buddhism’s anthropology, or, its understanding of human nature. If one checks the teachings of Buddha about man, one can clearly see the doctrine of impermanence as patent in it too.Buddha believes that human nature is nothing but a constitution of events called materiality, sensation, conceptualization, volition and consciousness (Griffiths, 1997, p. 20). This type of anthropology views man not as an existing individual substance (which most of Western Philosophy have understood what human nature is), but an â€Å"impermanent self† constituted by personal events (Griffith, 1997, p. 20). Cosmology for Buddhism follows the same line of logic. Constant flux is patent in its belief that the world follows a rhythm of birth and rebirth, of cycle and current, of existence and passage.The bulk of Buddhism’s teachings therefore solemnly enjoin its adherents to develop an attitude of detachment. Anchored on a belief that nothing in this world ever remains the same over a period of time, Buddhism points that the path towards Nirvana – or ultimate sense of bliss – lies in a state of total freedom from what this world actually offers. Lastly, it is quite interesting to point out that Buddhism rarely engages in a question about the ultimate reality or God. Broadly speaking, the whole philosophy of impermanence is at odds with a concept of deity.The general theory about God stipulates that ‘It† is a Supreme Being defined by eternality, omniscience, omnipotence and changelessness. In a belief system where the central truth about reality rests on the ephemeral nature of all things, the concept of God is really something hard to conceive (Griffiths, 1997, p. 22). How can there be such a Being when the general characteristic of all things – supposedly including God – is change and flux? More importantly, one can ask: how can one consider Buddhism a religion at all if one is not willing to r econcile its theology with its ontology?Griffith believes that the metaphysics of impermanence makes Buddhism deny the existence of God all together (Griffith, 1997, p. 23). But the image of Buddha as the exemplification of their quest for a transcendent end, translated in Nirvana, is perhaps the only figure of deity Buddhism actually posses. Conclusion Buddhism is both a philosophy and a religious movement. As a philosophy, it offers its adherents a way of life observed in a tradition marked by meditation, introspection, constant purgation of desire and an unending quest for enlightenment.As a religious movement, it is concerned with the pursuit of â€Å"transcendent ends† (Slater, 1978, p. 6) they call Nirvana. Buddhism offers its own understanding of reality too. Its doctrines are highly influenced by the teachings of its founder Gautama Buddha. In this paper, it has been noted that their belief system can also be evaluated under the categories which Western philosophy use s – metaphysics, epistemology, cosmology, anthropology and theology.These aspects are given meaning by a pervading concept of impermanence and dissatisfaction. Buddhism draws largely from a belief that everything in the world is impermanent, and that all people are enjoined to meet it with an attitude of detachment and self-control. The path towards true enlightenment happens only when one is able to see beyond what reality offers, and seek the true meaning of existence that lies only within. References Humphreys, C. (1997). A Popular Dictionary of Buddhism.Chicago: NTC. Griffiths, P. Buddhism. In Quinn, P. & Taliaferro, C. (Eds. ), A Companion to Philosophy of Religion. Massachusetts: Blackwell. McCutcheon, R. (2007). Studying Religion. An Introduction. London: Equinox. Mitchell, D. (2002). Introducing the Buddhist Experience. New York: Oxford University Slater, P. (1978). The Dynamics of Religion. Meaning and Change in Religious Traditions. San Francisco: Harper and Row. Wi lliams, P. (1989). Mahayana Buddhism. Doctrinal Foundations. New York: Routledge.

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